The interactions of radiation with saline water facilitate various energy-related applications, such as radiative evaporation at the air–water interface, radiation-driven underwater vapor generation, and underwater photovoltaic systems. However, …
Comprehensive Monte Carlo simulations are used to correct deviations in the atmospheric downwelling longwave (DLW) radiative flux calculated by isotropic scattering assumptions. The widely used $δ$-M approximation is validated for low to medium …